Indus Valley Civilization :-

During 1920 two ancient sites Harrapa and Mohenjodaro were excavated. It was called Harrapan civilization at first but with more cities being found it was rechristened to Indus valley civilization. In time when the true extent of the civilization came to  be realised it was referred to as the Indus civilization.

It seems to have been the evolution of the Mehrgarh Neolithic culture. 

The next step in the evolution was the settlement in Kohistan and Kirthar piedmont where they could utilise the shallow Saraswati/Hakar/Ghagghar river. In the final stages they colonised the flood plains of Indus river.

Extent –

Indus valley belongs to bronze age but was more sophisticated than its contemporary civilizations in many ways. Lasting from 3k BC to 1.4k BC, it was also the largest civilization of its time. It stretched from Jammu and Kashmir to Maharashtra and from Eastern Iran to western UP.

The core areas of the civilization probably was the Cholistan section of Saraswati/Hakra/Ghagghar river. 

Once developed in these areas, they spread downriver to Kuchha. Then they spread to Haryana, Rajasthan and Punjab. The move to Saurashtra and Mainland Gujarat was much later.

The settlements were of various kinds, ranging from industrial centres like Mohanjodaro to port cities like Lothal. There were also many small trading posts at the edges of the civilization. They maintained trade relations with Mesopotamian civilisation through sea and with southern India and central Asia through land.

Centralised planning-

One distinct feature of Indus valley civilization is its centralised planning. Cities like Mohanjodaro and Harappa show clear division of public and private areas. This varied to different degrees across the cities like Mohanjodaro showing signs of detailed planning but Kalibangan showing only rudimentary signs.

The main roads were wide but the streets were narrow but both of them were built very straight and bent at perpendicular angles. Cities like Lothal and Harappa have complex drainage systems laid in burnt bricks. There also are soaking pits at places. These however are absent in Kalibangan.

The houses were uniform with provisions of wells atleast between two houses. Some of the houses had multiple stories and clay and wood was extensively used.

Economy-

Granaries in large cities suggest surplus production of cereals. Main crops were wheat and barley, while cities like Lothal have evidence of rice aswell. Other crops included cotton and legumes. Farming utilised wooden ploughs and stone tools despite the availability of copper.

Trades like weaving, woodwork, bronze and gold smiths, brick maker, stone cutter, bangle and bead makers existed. Advanced arts like boatmaking and terracotta too were practiced.

Objects of gold and silver were common and so were stone tools which weren’t abandoned.

Trade-

Signs of trade east upto Bihar and south upto Maharashtra within India.

Signs of external trade have been found in places as far off as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan in north and Mesopotamia and Oman peninsula in west.

The areas were connected by maritime trade through ports like Lothal while overland trade existed by means of pack oxen and bullock carts. Seals of Indus motif have been found in Mesopotamia, Iran and Gulf while the opposite is also true.

Religion-

The chief male deity is Pashupati Mahadev while the chief female deity is Godess of earth.

There is presence of both Phallic and Yoni worship. Worship of gods in the form of trees, animals, birds and snakes.

Art-

There are terracotta figurines of animals, birds, male and female human forms and toys. These are handmade.

There are stone sculptures (viz. bearded man) and bronze sculptures (dancing girl).

Different kinds of well baked pottery.

Measurement-

Evidence of uniform weights and measuring sticks have been found. The linear system was binary and decimal.

Decline and fate-

There are many theories about the decline of Indus valley civilization. They range from and attack by Vedic Aryans to changes in climatic conditions in their core inhabited areas.

However modern studies suggest that they didn’t abruptly disappear but slowly merged into the mainstream of Indian culture.

Temple architecture (Hindu).

The Hindu temple evolved out of manifold influences from the local and aboriginal styles mixed with the Vedic yagya alter.

1)      The first of these is the influence of the stone dolmen which gives its square, flat roofed style.

2)      The second is from the tabernacle of the forest, giving it the Shikhara.

3)      The Square vedic altar for Yagya.

The early temples were made of perishable material and so not many of them survive today. Gupta period saw the beginning of usage of non-perishable material like stone and bricks for making of temples. The period saw two distinct styles emerge, one in north and the other in south. There are five broad styles of temple architecture out of which first three are the predecessors of modern temple style -

a)      Flat roofed square temple; The examples of this are Kankali devi temple at Tigawa and Varaha temple at Eran.

b)      Flat roofed square temple with a second storey above; Ex-Parvati temple of Nachna Kuthara , Lad Khan temple of Aihole and shiva temple of Bhumara

c)       Square temple with sikhara; Ex- Dasavthara temple of Deoghar and Brick temple of Bhitargaon.

d)      Rectangular temple

e)      Circular temple.

Later temple styles.

The temple styles mentioned in Vastu shastra are-

1)      Nagara- It was the temple style  prevalent in North India. The temple is a square base with number of gradual projections (Rathakas) in the middle of each face forming a crucifix over the garbhagriha. The highest point is the Shikhara above the garbhagriha. The archetype of this style is the Khajuraho temple. Different variants of this style were developed in different parts of north India.

2)      Dravida- This style developed in southern India. It is the storeyed form of Gupta temple. The hallmarks of this style are the Vimana ( tall pyramidal structure over the garbhaha) and the Gopuran(the immense pile of the gateway leading to temple enclosure).

 Landmark developments in this style are-

a)      Shore temple at Mahabalipuram by Narsimhavarman II

b)      Kailashanatha temple at Kanchipuram by Narsimhavarman II

c)       Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram by Nandivarman II

3)      Vesara- Also known as Chalukya or Deccan style. Its hybrid of above two styles. It retains the Vimana and Mandapa from Dravid style but the storeyed stages of the Vimana were compressed. Also the ornamental motifs repeated one above the other simulate the vertical bands of northern shikhara. There are multiple shrines arranged in same Mandapa hall.  The Hoysala temples of Belur and Halebidy are good examples of the same.

Further reading - http://historyofvisualart.blogspot.in/2013/06/posts-being-edited.html

Mesolithic and Neolithic period in India.

Mesolithic age started with the changes brought about after the end of last ice age in 9k BC. This is the time when India as we envision started to emerge. People moved from the hill sides and colonised the river valleys. They domesticated animals and started cultivation. Population had boomed with favourable warm climate and regular rains. Certain traits of civilisation like a settled life and burial of the dead started appearing.

An important development during the period was the usage of lighter and more symmetric tools called microliths. Bagor in Rajasthan is a Major Microlith excavation site.

The earliest evidence of domestication of animals emerges from Adamgarh in MP.

The earliest evidence of cultivation comes from near Sambhar lake in Rajasthan.

This period saw much increase in arts, supported by the increase in production. Bhimbetka in MP is an ideal example of this. Populated for a very long period, it has over 500 painted shelters in an area of 10 kms. It was declared a world heritage site in 1970.

The earliest Neolithic site in India is Mehrgarh in Baluchistan dating from 7k BC.

Other later Neolithic sites can be found in Vindhyas from 5k BC, In southern India from 2.5k BC and some exceptions in southern India from 1k BC.

This was the period when we started creating the first signs of a true civilization in India.

People settled down in villages, of houses made of mud bricks. Usage of pottery emerged and the art got sophisticated over time from baskets covered with mud to wheel based bots.

Though stones continued to be used, Copper was discovered and soon mixed with tin to get Bronze which was stronger than both. Wheels made of copper were used which revolutionised transport.

Early on life was a subsistence based on hunting, herding and cultivation. But soon, with advances in cultivation people could be freed from these trades and this saw the emergence of new trades and a complex society was created.

Mehrgarh is the predecessor to the most advanced civilization of its time, the Indus valley civilization.

Earliest presence of man in India.

India has been an essential part of the migration of human beings (and hominids) out of Africa. That is why so many distinct races( so called) of people inhabit the sub-continent.

The earliest proved presence of man (humans and hominids) in India date back from 250,000BC, indicated by the presence of stone tools. Recent discoveries of artefacts from Bori in Maharashtra could push this date to 1.4 million years.

Stone tools have been discovered throughout India except for the alluvial plain of Indus, Yamuna and Ganga.

The Stone Age in India is divided into three phases based on the nature of tools discovered.

a)      First phase: 500k BC to 50k BC. Use of Hand axes, cleavers and choppers. Sites have been found throughout India, from Punjab and Thar Desert to Bhimbetkar near Bhopal and Attirampakkam near Chennai. (These are generally related to Homo Erectus. )

Ex- Sohanian and Acheulian Culture.

b)      Second phase: 50k BC to 40K BC. Usage of flakes in blades, points and borers. These tools have been found in the basin of Narmada and Tungabhadra Rivers and Rajasthan. (These are generally related to Neanderthals though no proof of existence of Neanderthals has appeared in India.)

Rare due to development during extreme cold and arid climate. Use of Chert stone; Chert factories.

c)       Third phase: 40k to 10k BC. Usage of blades and burins. Sites have been found in Rajashtan ( with large presence of ostrich egg shells), Famous world heritage site of Bhimbetka near Bhopal, southern Ganges basin and southern india.

Characterised by presence of human beings in hill slopes and river valleys while absent in river valleys. Presence of Bored stones and Grinding stones. First art on forms on walls and utensils.

* Note: the images are for reference and may not have relation to actual indian sites from the period.