Indus Valley Civilization :-

During 1920 two ancient sites Harrapa and Mohenjodaro were excavated. It was called Harrapan civilization at first but with more cities being found it was rechristened to Indus valley civilization. In time when the true extent of the civilization came to  be realised it was referred to as the Indus civilization.

It seems to have been the evolution of the Mehrgarh Neolithic culture. 

The next step in the evolution was the settlement in Kohistan and Kirthar piedmont where they could utilise the shallow Saraswati/Hakar/Ghagghar river. In the final stages they colonised the flood plains of Indus river.

Extent –

Indus valley belongs to bronze age but was more sophisticated than its contemporary civilizations in many ways. Lasting from 3k BC to 1.4k BC, it was also the largest civilization of its time. It stretched from Jammu and Kashmir to Maharashtra and from Eastern Iran to western UP.

The core areas of the civilization probably was the Cholistan section of Saraswati/Hakra/Ghagghar river. 

Once developed in these areas, they spread downriver to Kuchha. Then they spread to Haryana, Rajasthan and Punjab. The move to Saurashtra and Mainland Gujarat was much later.

The settlements were of various kinds, ranging from industrial centres like Mohanjodaro to port cities like Lothal. There were also many small trading posts at the edges of the civilization. They maintained trade relations with Mesopotamian civilisation through sea and with southern India and central Asia through land.

Centralised planning-

One distinct feature of Indus valley civilization is its centralised planning. Cities like Mohanjodaro and Harappa show clear division of public and private areas. This varied to different degrees across the cities like Mohanjodaro showing signs of detailed planning but Kalibangan showing only rudimentary signs.

The main roads were wide but the streets were narrow but both of them were built very straight and bent at perpendicular angles. Cities like Lothal and Harappa have complex drainage systems laid in burnt bricks. There also are soaking pits at places. These however are absent in Kalibangan.

The houses were uniform with provisions of wells atleast between two houses. Some of the houses had multiple stories and clay and wood was extensively used.

Economy-

Granaries in large cities suggest surplus production of cereals. Main crops were wheat and barley, while cities like Lothal have evidence of rice aswell. Other crops included cotton and legumes. Farming utilised wooden ploughs and stone tools despite the availability of copper.

Trades like weaving, woodwork, bronze and gold smiths, brick maker, stone cutter, bangle and bead makers existed. Advanced arts like boatmaking and terracotta too were practiced.

Objects of gold and silver were common and so were stone tools which weren’t abandoned.

Trade-

Signs of trade east upto Bihar and south upto Maharashtra within India.

Signs of external trade have been found in places as far off as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan in north and Mesopotamia and Oman peninsula in west.

The areas were connected by maritime trade through ports like Lothal while overland trade existed by means of pack oxen and bullock carts. Seals of Indus motif have been found in Mesopotamia, Iran and Gulf while the opposite is also true.

Religion-

The chief male deity is Pashupati Mahadev while the chief female deity is Godess of earth.

There is presence of both Phallic and Yoni worship. Worship of gods in the form of trees, animals, birds and snakes.

Art-

There are terracotta figurines of animals, birds, male and female human forms and toys. These are handmade.

There are stone sculptures (viz. bearded man) and bronze sculptures (dancing girl).

Different kinds of well baked pottery.

Measurement-

Evidence of uniform weights and measuring sticks have been found. The linear system was binary and decimal.

Decline and fate-

There are many theories about the decline of Indus valley civilization. They range from and attack by Vedic Aryans to changes in climatic conditions in their core inhabited areas.

However modern studies suggest that they didn’t abruptly disappear but slowly merged into the mainstream of Indian culture.