Famines in India during British Raj.

Famine is a condition of acute scarcity of food. It can be caused due to multitudes of factors, major ones being; crop failure, population imbalance and policy failure. Every nation in its history has gone through phases of famine, but in Indian context, there was a human orchestrated spike in number and toll of famines between late eighteenth and mid twentieth century. Following is a brief summary of the role played by a foreign colonising power in causing one of the worst human catastrophes in an erstwhile stable civilization.

In India agriculture has traditionally dependent upon monsoon, upon the failure of which famine like conditions have often resulted. Other calamities like cyclones and Tsunamis have also trigerred them. These have been major historical events and records mention 90 famines in the 2500 years of history of India. This puts the number at roughly one famine in some part of India every 30 years. However between 11^th and 17^th century there were only 14 recorded famines averaging around one every 50 years.

Indus valley civilization is thought to have died of one such famine erupting out of failure of monsoons for as long as 40 years. In time there were procedures standardised and preparations made both and individual and state level to tackle this. The oldest mention of such efforts comes from Kautilya. At times of famines, rulers often distributed food amongst the people and/or public works was commissioned to help the people in need. Umaid Bhawan palace is example of one such construction.

However the frequency of such famines increased during the British Raj. Conservative estimates put the deaths at 60 million while it could be as high as twice that number. To put this into perspective, an estimated 75 million people died in WW2.

Agreeing on the part played by nature in this destruction, the biggest part in it was indeed played by the British Government. More famines occurred in the 200 years of British rule (25) than in all of the seven hundred years before them (14). Not to forget the scale of these mass deaths; the largest catastrophe before British was 2 million deaths in famine of Gujarat and Deccan famine of 1630-32, both 1772 famine of Bengal and 1876 famine of Sothern India took over 10 million and 6 million lives respectively.

With these numbers in mind it looks more like a genocide perpetrated under the calls which some British made, 'of eradicating the Indian race'. While people accuse Subhash or amazingly even Gandhi of sympathising with Hitler, these numbers suggest he was a saint compared to the British. For many who say that British gave us so many things and created the modern India, these tolls should make them understand otherwise. The British treatment was severely inhumane and nothing short of Holocaust comes close in comparison.

Let us look at the causes for such destruction and mass deaths-

1)      British ignorance and disregard to the local systems and conditions.

a)      Indian society had adapted to the frequent drought conditions. The crops grown and the amount of land under each crop were regulated by these concerns. British pushed them to grow commercial crops like indigo and cotton. These reduced the surplus grains which were stored for lean years making people helpless in years of low yield.

b)      The flood plains were prone to change and based on the state of changing course of rivers, people had to be mobile to accommodate the conditions. However this was harmful for the revenue of the Company which wanted to have stable land records. Adding to this the road and railways constructed embankments were forces that led to dying out of older mobile ways of the people. This made the frequency of famines lesser but more potent.

2)      Unhinging faith in Free market Capitalism.

a)      While masses were starving, because they couldn’t pay for the food, it was exported mainly to Britain where people had the power to purchase. No relief works were commission in early years of British rule in the belief that market forces should be allowed to take their course.

b)      People were forced to grow cash crops like indigo and cotton but their prices were volatile. In the years of negative volatility there were no provisions of support prices or aid to the farmers which led to destitution.

3)      Apathy and low regard in part of British for Indian masses.

a)      During the Madras famine of 1876 there was a belief in the British administrators that the population of the locals was too much and it needed to be controlled by famines. There was outright refusal to provide food aids and people were left to die.

b)      India was run like a machine with main motive being profit with utter disregard for the inhabitants. During the height of 1770 famine, the tax rates were actually raised. While normal practice in such conditions was to forego these, the British forcefully collected the taxes, leaving the people to die. That year the Company actually recorded an increment in its profits.

c)       During the Famine of 1943, the main focus of British was to preserve its Empire and despite bad harvest, past few years, the policy of scorched earth was followed in east Bengal. There was refusal to ship food from other stated out of fear of these getting in hands of Japanese.  The death toll at 4 million was comparable to that of Jews in Europe (6 million).

1)      Previous disastrous policies carried out by British.

a)      The economic sanctions had broken the back of Artisans. Indian textile industry which was more advanced than their contemporary British ones had been reduced to rubble and most of the workers had been absorbed back in agriculture which increased hidden unemployment and pressure on land.

b)      Traditionally there was a tradition to forego taxes at times of drought. But under zamindari and other land revenue systems implemented by British were unbending and tax was collected violently.

c)       Under earlier system a part of the produce was shared with artisans and other labourers of the village. By monetising taxes, this was foreclosed. Most deaths during famines were these artisans and landless labourers who couldn’t afford food.

The loss of life on such a scale was unseen before. The modern technologies and institutions credited to British like the railroad actually aided the effort. The grains available were moved from deep interiors of India for export. Police and military were utilised to keep the hungry masses from attacking the ports while these were laden.

For timeline of the same :- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_major_famines_in_India_during_British_rule

For the argument that we were not capable of governing ourselves, the outcome if visible, but in this context it’s even more amazing. While just four years before Independence 4 million lives were lost to famine, after independence, it has almost lost its mighty stature. Within thirty years the necessary investment, infrastructure and institutional changes were made and India is today self-sufficient in food grain. This points out clearly the unwillingness on part of British to do enough to prevent these disastrous calamities and brings out the real motive of their presence in India; not the white man’s burden but his insatiable greed.

British Rule : Time line from 1833 to 1858; Period of centralisation and acquisition of territory.

The period of Governor Generals saw centralisation of power by the British. It was the period in which Britain underwent Industrialisation and was far more dominant over Indian states. The period saw large number of ANNEXations and remarkably the introduction of Railways and telegraph. Finally and the most important occurrence of the period was the Indian Revolt of 1857, which changed things forever.

1)      Charter act of 1833. William Bentick made the Governor General of India (1833-35). Legislative powers of Madras and Bombay Presidency removed.

2)      ANNEXation of Coorg in 1834.

3)      Macaulay’s minutes and introduction of English as the medium of study.

4)      Auckland is the made the Governor (1835-42).

5)      First Afghan WAR(1836-42) due to Russo phobia. British defeat and recall of Auckland.

6)      Famine in North India (1837-38).

7)      New treaty with amirs of sind (1839).

8)      Death of Ranjit singh in 1839.

9)      Ellenborough is made the Governor (1842-44).

10)   Conquest of Sind in 1843. WAR with Gwalior. Suppression of slavery.

11)   Hardinge is made the Governor. (1844-48)

12)   First Sikh WAR(1845-46).

13)   Prohibition of female infanticide and suppression of human sacrifice.

14)   Dalhousie is made the Governor (1848-56).

15)   ANNEXation of Satara in 1848 under Doctrine of lapse.

16)   Second Sikh WAR. Defeat and ANNEXation of Punjab.(1848-49)

17)   Jaitpur and Sambalpur ANNEXed in 1849 under Doctrine of lapse.

18)   Second Burmese WAR (1852) and ANNEXation of Pegu.

19)   Charter act of 1853 made civil services open to competition.

20)   Introduction of Railways and Telegraph in 1853.

21)   Nagpur and Jhansi ANNEXed in 1854 under Doctrine of lapse.

22)   Tanjor and Arcot ANNEXed in 1855 under Doctrine of lapse.

23)   Santhal uprising in 1855-56.

24)   Hindu widow re-marriage act 1856.

25)   Udaipur and Awadh ANNEXed in 1856. The ANNEXation under the policy quarter of total.

26)   Canning made the Governor (1856-57).

27)   Revolt of 1857.

Early British Rule :-

The British didnt come to India with the intention of empire building. However acting on opportunity and driven by profits they did end up controlling all of India. The initial phase of Company's rule presents interesting set of events, along with personalities of governors who decided the fate of India for the next 200 years to come.

The timeline is just to put the individual events we know of in perspective. To know what led to what and why something couldnt have happened. 

Time line from 1600 to 1833. Monopoly of the East India Company.

1)      Queen Elizabeth granted a royal charter to a large body of merchants in England called as ‘The new company of merchants of London, trading into the East Indies’. (31 dec 1600)

2)      William Hawkins appears in the court of Jahangir in 1609 but is denied trading rights.

3)      Sir Thomas Roe succeeded in 1917. Factory was setup in Surat in 1619 and at Madras in 1639.

4)      BATTLE between the company and Aurangzeb in 1688-91.

5)      BATTLE of Plassey (1757) between the company and forces of Siraj ud Daulah, the nawab of Bengal. Robert Clive delivers crushing defeat to a much larger army.

6)      BATTLE of Buxar in 1764, between the Company and the combined forces of Nawab of Audh, Mir Quasim ( Nawab of Bengal) and the Mughal emperor. The Company forces defeated a force 4 times their own size in men and artillery. They gained the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa from the Mughal emperor.

7)      First Anglo-Mysore WARs (1767-69). Defeat of the Company at the hands of French and Mysore forces in BATTLEs, WAR was a stalemate.

8)      Regulating act of 1773.

9)      1773-85, WARren Hastings is made the Governor of Bengal. His attempts at dispensing the myth of Mughal supremacy and acquaint the British officers to Indian customs.

10)   First Anglo Maratha WAR in 1775-82. Defeat of British in BATTLEs, WAR at a stalemate. Twenty years of peace. TREATY of Salbai.

11)   Accession of Tipu sultan in 1782.

12)   Second Anglo-Mysore WAR (1780-84) ended in stalemate. TREATY of Mangalore.

13)   Pitts India act of 1784.

14)   Foundation of Asiatic society by Hasting and Sir William Jones 1784.

15)   Cornwallis made the Governor of Bengal. (1786-93).

16)   Setup of covenanted civil services.

17)   Third Anglo-mysore WAR and defeat of Mysore. TREATY of Seringapatam. (1790-92)

18)   Accession of Ranjit Singh to throne 1792.

19)   Establishment of Zamindari system in Bihar and Bengal in 1793.

20)   John Shore made the Governor of Bengal. (1793-98).

21)   Introduction of permanent settlement in 1793.

22)   Richard Wellsley becomes the Governor of Bengal. (1798-1805)

23)   Introduction of subsidiary alliance system. TREATY with Hydrabad.

24)   Fourth mysore WAR(1799). Mysore’s defeat and annexation. Formation of Madras presidency.

25)   Second Maratha WAR. (1803-05)

26)   Recall of Wellsley and second term of Cornwallis. (1805-07). Cornwallis’s sudden death.

27)   Minto I is made the  Governor of Fort William.(1807-13)

28)   Charter act of 1813, ending monopoly of East India Company except in tea and trade with china.

29)   Allocation of one lakh rupees annually for education in 1813.

30)    Francis Hastings(not to be confused with Warren) is made the Governor of Fort William. (1813-23).

31)   Nepal WARs (1814-16). TREATY of Sagauli.

32)   Third Anglo-maratha WAR(1817-18). Abolition of Peshwaship and creation of Bombay presidency.

33)   Alliance with Rajput states 1819.

34)   Introduction of RyotWARi system in Madras presidency in 1820.

35)   Jeffrey Amherst becomes the Governor (1823-28)

36)   First Burmese WAR 1824-26. Annexation of Assam, Manipur  and  Arakan.

37)   Capture of Bharatpur in 1826.

38)   William Bentick became the Governor.(1828-33)

39)   Prohibition of Sati in 1829. Suppression of Thugee (1829 to 1835)

40)   Annexation of Cachar 1830 and Jaintia 1832.

41)   Visit of Raja Ram Mohan Roy to England1830 and his death there in 1833.

42)   Deposition of Raja of Mysore and British takeover of his administration.

Vedic Age (1.5k BC to 0.6k BC)

Vedic age is often cited as the basis of our current Indian civilization however it had marked differences from the current socio-religious structure extant today. Most of the popular gods venerated today would have been unknown to them so would have been the tough caste system we see today. They indeed had contributed a lot to the stream of Indian culture but most of their contribution came later upon intermixing with local people.

Vedic period is considered to have lasted from 1.5k BC to 1k BC while the period from 1k BC to .6k BC is generally considered later Vedic period. The oldest Veda, the Rig Veda talks of simple socio-economic, religious and political setup. This has been corroborated by over 700 sites found in northern India. Later Vedic times witnessed spread of  the culture to other areas which increased the complexity in living conditions.

Rig Vedic phase-

The culture was spread throughout the Saptasindhu (five rivers of Punjab, Indus and Saraswati) spreading from eastern Afghanistan to doab region.

They were mostly pastoral but were also aware of cultivation. Raids and animal breeding was the main source of increasing wealth. Horses, cattle, dog, ass, sheep and goat were domesticated.

Identity was related to tribe of Jana. Groups of Families formed Gram. Group of villages formed Vis. Groups of Vis formed Jana. Groups of Jana formed Rashtra.

The varna system which literally means colour had three levels; warriors, priests and traders.

Vedic religion is defined as Henotheism, the belief in single gods, each in turn standing out as highest. There were thirty three deities and there was no stress on iconography.

Later Vedic phase-

Vedic people expanded to western and middle Ganga valley and the Himalayan foothills.

Mentions of non-Vedic local populations in central Ganges valley.

There was gradual shift from pastoralism to agriculture.

The four varna system was established and the hierarchy cemented. The caste system may have been an earlier organisation of Indian society.

Various Janas merged to form larger groups with rajan evolving into the king. The increase in power also brought about increase in sacrifices like Ashwamedha, Vajapeya and Rajasuya.

There was a general decline in prayer as a mode of worship and elaborate sacrifices took over. There were reactions to it in the form of Shramana movements.

The use of iron which had begun in early Vedic period become more advanced and this commonly available.

Other features of Vedic age.

Position of women- The society was fairly egalitarian. Women enjoyed equal rights as men in attending tribal assemblies(sabhas) and religious ceremonies, widow remarriage was allowed, child marriage was unknown and sati was only symbolic. However later they lost their political rights and child marriage and sati emerged.

Ashramas or stages of life- Later in Vedic period emerged four stages for regulating the life of higher casts. These were, Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprashta and Sanyas.

System of Gotra- Gotra literally mean cow-pen. It denoted descent from a common ancestor. Exogamy between gotras was observed.

Education and Slavery- Early Aryans were illiterate and writing appeared around 700 BC. Slavery was prevalent and affluent men kept many female slaves for household works.

Vedic religion-

There are thirty three divinities divided into three groups; Terrestrial(prithvisthana),atmospheric or intermediate(antarikshastana or madhyamasthana) and celestial(dyusthana).

There were strains of monotheism and monism from a philosophical point and Henotheism/kathenotheism in practice.

Indra was the most important god(250 hymns in rig veda were dedicated to him).

Agni was the second most important god (200 hymns were dedicated to him).

Soma or the deity of plants is the third most important god.

Other important gods are Varun (the god of water) the upholder of rita or natural order.

Hymns to Usha ( dawn) are most flowery.

Other important goddesses are Aditi (eternity),Aranyani (forest), Nirrti (decay and death)

In later Vedic period gods like Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra grew in importance at the cost of Indra.

Also with time, the importance of prayers decreased and that of sacrifices increased.

This led to the rise of shramana movement which would eventually give rise to Buddhism and Jainism. This would cause a reform in the Vedic society and in later phases the importance of sacrifices diminished.